新东方背诵文选全集

　　01 the language of musica painter hangs his or her finished pictures on a wall, and everyone can see it. a composer writes a work, but no one can hear it until it is performed. professional singers and players have great responsibilities, for the composer is utterly dependent on them. a student of music needs as long and as arduous a training to become a performer as a medical student needs to become a doctor. most training is concerned with technique, for musicians have to have the muscular proficiency of an athlete or a ballet dancer. singers practice breathing every day, as their vocal chords would beinadequate without controlled muscular support. string players practice moving the fingers of the left hand up and down, while drawing the bow to and fro with the right arm-two entirely different movements. singers and instruments have to be able to get every note perfectly in tune. pianists are spared this particular anxiety, for the notes are already there, waiting for them, and it is the piano tuner’s responsibility to tune the instrument for them. but they have their own difficulties; the hammersthat hit the string have to be coaxed not to sound like percussion, and each overlapping tone has to sound clear.this problem of getting clear texture is one that confronts student conductors: they have to learn to know every note of the music and how it should sound, and they have to aim at controlling these sounds with fanatical but selfless authority. technique is of no use unless it is combined with musical knowledge and understanding. great artists are those who are so thoroughly at home in the language of music that they can enjoy performing works written in any century.

　　02 schooling and educationit is commonly believed in united states that school is where people go to get an education. nevertheless, it has been said that today children interrupt their education to go to school. the distinction between schooling and education implied by this remark is important. education is much more open-ended and all-inclusive than schooling. education knows no bounds. it can take place anywhere, whether in the shower or in the job, whether in a kitchen or on a tractor. it includes both the formal learning that takes place in schools and the whole universe ofinformal learning. the agents of education can range from a revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the radio, from a child to a distinguished scientist. whereas schooling has a certain predictability, education quite often produces surprises. a chance conversation with a stranger may lead a person to discover how little is known of other religions. people are engaged in education from infancy on. education, then, is a very broad, inclusive term. it is a lifelong process, a process that starts long before the start of school, and one that should be an integral part of one’s entire life. schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose general pattern varies little from one setting to the next. throughout a country, children arrive at school at approximately the same time, take assigned seats, are taught by an adult, use similar textbooks, do homework, take exams, and so on. the slices of reality that are to be learned, whether they are the alphabet or an understanding of the working of government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of the subject being taught. for example, high school students know that there not likely to find out intheir classes the truth about political problems in their communities or what the newest filmmakers are experimenting with. there are definite conditions surrounding the formalized process of schooling.

　　03 the definition of “price”prices determine how resources are to be used. they are also the means by which products and services that are in limited supply are rationed among buyers. the price system of the united states is a complex network composed of the prices of all the products bought and sold in the economy as well as those of a myriad of services, including labor, professional, transportation, and public-utility services. the interrelationships of all these prices make up the “system” of prices. the price of any particular product or service is linked to a broad, complicated system of prices in which everything seems to depend more or less upon everything else. if one were to ask a group of randomly selected individuals to define “price”, many would reply that price is an amount of money paid by the buyer to the seller of a product or service or, in other words that price is the money values of a product or service as agreed upon in a market transaction. this definition is, of course, valid as far as it goes. for a complete understanding of a price in any particular transaction, much more than the amount of money involved must be known. both the buyer and the seller should be familiar with not only the money amount, but with theamount and quality of the product or service to be exchanged, the time and place at which the exchange will take place and payment will be made, the form of money to be used, the credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and other factors. in other words, both buyer and seller should be fully aware of all the factors that comprise the total “package” being exchanged for the asked-for amount of money in order that they may evaluate a given price.

　　04 electricitythe modern age is an age of electricity. people are so used to electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to imagine what life would be like without them. when there is a power failure, people grope about in flickering candlelight, cars hesitate in the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide them, and food spoils in silent refrigerators.    yet, people began to understand how electricity works only a little more than two centuries ago. nature has apparently been experimenting in this field for million of years. scientists are discovering more and more that the living world may hold many interesting secrets of electricity that could benefit humanity.    all living cell send out tiny pulses of electricity. as the heart beats, it sends out pulses of record; they form an electrocardiogram, which a doctor can study to determine how well the heart is working. the brain, too, sends out brain waves of electricity, which can be recorded in an electroencephalogram. the electric currents generated by most living cells are extremely small - often so small that sensitive instruments are needed to record them. but in some animals, certain muscle cells have become so specialized as electrical generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all. when large numbers of these cell are linked together, the effects can be astonishing.    the electric eel is an amazing storage battery. it can seed a jolt of as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through the water in which it live. (an electric house current is only one hundred twenty volts.) as many as four-fifths of all the cells in the electric eel’s body are specialized for generating electricity, and the strength of the shock it can deliver corresponds roughly to length of its body.

　　05 the beginning of dramathere are many theories about the beginning of drama in ancient greece. the on most widely accepted today is based on the assumption that drama evolved from ritual. the argument for this view goes as follows. in the beginning, human beings viewed the natural forces of the world-even the seasonal changes-as unpredictable, and they sought through various means to control these unknown and feared powers. those measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed rituals. eventually stories arose which explained or veiled the mysteries of the rites. as time passed some rituals were abandoned, but the stories, later called myths, persisted and provided material for art and drama.those who believe that drama evolved out of ritual also argue that thoserites contained the seed of theater because music, dance, masks, and costumes were almost always used, furthermore, a suitable site had to be provided for performances and when the entire community did not participate, a clear division was usually made between the "acting area" and the "auditorium." in addition, there were performers, and, since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task. wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mimed the desired effect-success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the sun-as an actor might. eventually such dramatic representations were separated from religious activities.another theory traces the theater’s origin from the human interest in storytelling. according to this vies tales (about the hunt, war, or other feats) are gradually elaborated, at first through the use of impersonation, action, and dialogue by a narrator and then through the assumption of each of the roles by a different person. a closely related theory traces theater to those dances that are primarily rhythmical and gymnastic or that are imitations of animal movements and sounds.

　　06 televisionstelevision-----the most pervasive and persuasive of modern technologies, marked by rapid change and growth-is moving into a new era, an era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which promises to reshape our lives and our world. it is an electronic revolution of sorts, made possible by the marriage of television and computer technologies.the word "television", derived from its greek (tele: distant) and latin (visi sight) roots, can literally be interpreted as sight from a distance. very simply put, it works in this way: through a sophisticated system of electronics, television provides the capability of converting an image (focused on a special photoconductive plate within a camera) into electronic impulses, which can be sent through a wire or cable. these impulses, when fed into a receiver (television set), can then be electronically reconstituted into that same image.television is more than just an electronic system, however. it is a means of expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as such becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings.the field of television can be divided into two categories determined by its means of transmission. first, there is broadcast television, which reaches the masses through broad-based airwave transmission of television signals. second, there is nonbroadcast television, which provides for the needs of individuals or specific interest groups through controlled transmission techniques.traditionally, television has been a medium of the masses. we are most familiar with broadcast television because it has been with us for about thirty-seven years in a form similar to what exists today. during those years, it has been controlled, for the most part, by the broadcast networks, abc, nbc, and cbs, who have been the major purveyors of news, information, and entertainment. these giants of broadcasting have actually shaped not only television but our perception of it as well. we have come to look upon the picture tube as a source of entertainment, placing our role in this dynamic medium as the passive viewer.

　　07 andrew carnegieandrew carnegie, known as the king of steel, built the steel industry in the united states, and, in the process, became one of the wealthiest men in america. his success resulted in part from his ability to sell the product and in part from his policy of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of his competitors were reducing their investments.     carnegie believed that individuals should progress through hard work, but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes for the benefit of society. he opposed charity, preferring instead to provide educational opportunities that would allow others to help themselves. "he who dies rich, dies disgraced," he often said.among his more noteworthy contributions to society are those that bear his name, including the carnegie institute of pittsburgh, which has a library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history. he also founded a school of technology that is now part of carnegie-mellon university. other philanthropic gifts are the carnegie endowment for international peace to promote understanding between nations, the carnegie institute of washington to fund scientific research, and carnegie hall to provide a center for the arts.few americans have been left untouched by andrew carnegie’s generosity. his contributions of more than five million dollars established 2,500 libraries in small communities throughout the country and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy today.

　　08 american revolutionthe american revolution was not a sudden and violent overturning of the political and social framework, such as later occurred in france and russia, when both were already independent nations. significant changes were ushered in, but they were not breathtaking. what happened was accelerated evolution rather than outright revolution. during the conflict itself people went on working and praying, marrying and playing. most of them were not seriously disturbed by the actual fighting, and many of the more isolated communities scarcely knew that a war was on. america’s war of independence heralded the birth of three modern nations. one was canada, which received its first large influx of english-speaking population from the thousands of loyalists who fled there from the united states. another was australia, which became a penal colony now that america was no longer available for prisoners and debtors. the third newcomer-the united states-based itself squarely on republican principles.yet even the political overturn was not so revolutionary as one might suppose. in some states, notably connecticut and rhode island, the war largely ratified a colonial self-rule already existing. british officials, everywhere ousted, were replaced by a home-grown governing class, which promptly sought a local substitute for king and parliament.

　　09 suburbanizationif by "suburb" is meant an urban margin that grows more rapidly than its already developed interior, the process of suburbanization began during the emergence of the industrial city in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. before that period the city was a small highly compact luster in which people moved about on foot and goods were conveyed by horse and cart. but the early factories built in the 1840’s were located along waterways and near railheads at the edges of cities, and housing was needed for the thousands of people drawn by the prospect of employment. in time, the factories were surrounded by proliferating mill towns of apartments and row houses that abutted the older, main cities. as a defense against this encroachment and to enlarge their tax bases, the cities appropriated their industrial neighbors. in 1854, for example, the city of philadelphia annexed most of philadelphia county. similar municipal maneuvers took place in chicago and in new york. indeed, most great cities of the united states achieved such status only by incorporating the communities along their borders.with the acceleration of industrial growth came acute urban crowding and accompanying social stress-conditions that began to approach disastrous proportions when, in 1888, the first commercially successful electric traction line was developed. within a few years the horse-drawn trolleys were retired and electric streetcar networks crisscrossed and connected every major urban area, fostering a wave of suburbanization that transformed the compact industrial city into a dispersed metropolis. this first phase of mass-scale suburbanization was reinforced by the simultaneous emergence of the urban middle class, whose desires for homeownership in neighborhoods far from the aging inner city were satisfied by the developers of single-family housing tracts.

　　10 types of speechstandard usage includes those words and expressions understood, used, and accepted by a majority of the speakers of a language in any situation regardless of the level of formality. as such, these words and expressions are well defined and listed in standard dictionaries. colloquialisms, on the other hand, are familiar words and idioms that are understood by almost all speakers of a language and used in informal speech or writing, but not considered appropriate for more formal situations. almost all idiomatic expressions are colloquial language. slang, however, refers to words and expressions understood by a large number of speakers but not accepted as good, formal usage by the majority. colloquial expressions and even slang may be found in standard dictionaries but will be so identified. both colloquial usage and slang are more common in speech than in writing.colloquial speech often passes into standard speech. some slang also passes into standard speech, but other slang expressions enjoy momentary popularity followed by obscurity. in some cases, the majority never accepts certain slang phrases but nevertheless retains them in their collective memories. every generation seems to require its own set of words to describe familiar objects and events. it has been pointed out by a number of linguists that three cultural conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body of slang expressions. first, the introduction and acceptance of new objects and situations in the society; second, a diverse population with a large number of subgroups; third, association among the subgroups and the majority population.finally, it is worth noting that the terms "standard" "colloquial" and slang" exist only as abstract labels for scholars who study language. only a tiny number of the speakers of any language will be aware that they are using colloquial or slang expressions. most speakers of english will, during appropriate situations, select and use all three types of expressions.

　　11 archaeologyarchaeology is a source of history, not just a bumble auxiliary discipline. archaeological data are historical documents in their own right, not mere illustrations to written texts, just as much as any other historian, anarchaeologist studies and tries to reconstitute the process that has created the human world in which we live - and us ourselves in so far as we are each creatures of our age and social environment. archaeological data are all changes in the material world resulting from human action or, more succinctly, the fossilized results of human behavior. the sum total of these constitutes what may be called the archaeological record. this record exhibits certain peculiarities and deficiencies the consequences of which produce a rather superficial contrast between archaeological history and the more familiar kind based upon written records.not all human behavior fossilizes. the words i utter and you hear as vibrations in the air are certainly human changes in the material world and may be of great historical significance. yet they leave no sort of trace in the archaeological records unless they are captured by a dictaphone or written down by a clerk. the movement of troops on the battlefield may "change the course of history," but this is equally ephemeral from the archaeologist’s standpoint. what are perhaps worse, most organic materials are perishable. everything made of wood, hide, wool, linen, grass, hair, and similar materials will decay and vanish in dust in a few years or centuries, save under very exceptional conditions. in a relatively brief period the archaeological record is reduce to mere scraps of stone, bone, glass, metal, and earthenware. still modern archaeology, by applying appropriate techniques and comparative methods, aided by a few lucky finds from peat-bogs, deserts, and frozen soils, is able to fill up a good deal of the gap.

　　12 museumsfrom boston to los angeles, from new york city to chicago to dallas, museums are either planning, building, or wrapping up wholesale expansion programs. these programs already have radically altered facades and floor plans or are expected to do so in the not-too-distant future. in new york city alone, six major institutions have spread up and out into the air space and neighborhoods around them or are preparing to do so.the reasons for this confluence of activity are complex, but one factor is a consideration everywhere - space. with collections expanding, with the needs and functions of museums changing, empty space has become a very precious commodity.probably nowhere in the country is this more true than at the philadelphia museum of art, which has needed additional space for decades and which received its last significant facelift ten years ago. because of the space crunch, the art museum has become increasingly cautious in considering acquisitions and donations of art, in some cases passing up opportunities to strengthen its collections.deaccessing - or selling off - works of art has taken on new importance because of the museum’s space problems. and increasingly, curators have been forced to juggle gallery space, rotating one masterpiece into public view while another is sent to storage.despite the clear need for additional gallery and storage space, however," the museum has no plan, no plan to break out of its envelope in the next fifteen years," according to philadelphia museum of art’s president.

　　13 skyscrapers and environmentin the late 1960’s, many people in north america turned their attention to environmental problems, and new steel-and-glass skyscrapers were widely criticized. ecologists pointed out that a cluster of tall buildings in a city often overburdens public transportation and parking lot capacities.skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power. in one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of skyscraper office space in new york city raised the peak daily demand for electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply the entire city of albany, new york, for a day.glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful. the heat loss (or gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten times that through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board. to lessen the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders of skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and reflective glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce glare as well as heat gain. however, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise the temperature of the surrounding air and affect neighboring buildings.skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city’s sanitation facilities, too. if fully occupied, the two world trade center towers in new york city would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each year-as much as a city the size of stanford, connecticut , which has a population of more than 109, 000.

　　14 a rare fossil recordthe preservation of embryos and juveniles is a rate occurrence in the fossil record. the tiny, delicate skeletons are usually scattered by scavengers or destroyed by weathering before they can be fossilized. ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did terrestrial creatures because, asmarine animals, they tended to live in environments less subject to erosion. still, their fossilization required a suite of factors: a slow rate of decay of soft tissues, little scavenging by other animals, a lack of swift currents and waves to jumble and carry away small bones, and fairly rapid burial. given these factors, some areas have become a treasury of well-preserved ichthyosaur fossils.the deposits at holzmaden, germany, present an interesting case for analysis. the ichthyosaur remains are found in black, bituminous marine shales deposited about 190 million years ago. over the years, thousands of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have been recovered from these rocks. the quality of preservation is outstanding, but what is even more impressive is the number of ichthyosaur fossils containing preserved embryos. ichthyosaurs with embryos have been reported from 6 different levels of the shale in a small area around holzmaden, suggesting that a specific site was used by large numbers of ichthyosaurs repeatedly over time. the embryos are quite advanced in their physical development; their paddles, for example, are already well formed. one specimen is even preserved in the birth canal. in addition, the shale contains the remains of many newborns that are between 20 and 30 inches long. why are there so many pregnant females and young at holzmaden when they are so rare elsewhere? the quality of preservation is almost unmatched and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with an awareness of the value of the fossils. but these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth.

　　15 the nobel academyfor the last 82years, sweden’s nobel academy has decided who will receive the nobel prize in literature, thereby determining who will be elevated from the great and the near great to the immortal. but today the academy is coming under heavy criticism both from the without and from within. critics contend that the selection of the winners often has less to do with true writing ability than with the peculiar internal politics of the academy and of sweden itself. according to ingmar bjorksten, the cultural editor for one of the country’s two major newspapers, the prize continues to represent "what people call a very swedish exercise: reflecting swedish tastes." the academy has defended itself against such charges of provincialism in its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the great literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the academy from outside influences. this may well be true, but critics respond that this very distance may also be responsible for the academy’s inability to perceive accurately authentic trends in the literary world.       regardless of concerns over the selection process, however, it seems that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that writers seek. if for no other reason, the prize will continue to be desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it; not only is the cash prize itself considerable, but it also dramatically increases sales of an author’s books.

　　16. the war between britain and francein the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost every corner of europe, as well as in the middle east, south africa, the west indies, and latin america. in reality, however, there was only one major war during this time, the war between britain and france. all other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at least partially related to its antagonist’ goals and strategies. france sought total domination of europe. this goal was obstructed by british independence and britain’s efforts throughout the continent to thwart napoleon; through treaties. britain built coalitions (not dissimilar in concept to today’s nato) guaranteeing british participation in all major european conflicts. these two antagonists were poorly matched, insofar as they had very unequal strengths; france was predominant on land, britain at sea. the french knew that, short of defeating the british navy, their only hope of victory was to close all the ports of europe to british ships. accordingly, france set out to overcome britain by extending its military domination from moscow t lisbon, from jutland to caldaria. all of this entailed tremendous risk, because france did not have the military resources to control this much territory and still protect itself and maintain order at home.french strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships would provide the force necessary to defeat the british navy. such a force would give france a three-to-two advantage over britain. this advantage was deemed necessary because of britain’s superior sea skills and technology because of britain ’s superior sea skills and technology, and also because britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing it to win with fewer forces. napoleon never lost substantial impediment to his control of europe. as his forceneared that goal, napoleon grew increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate attack.

　　17 evolution of sleepsleep is very ancient. in the electroencephalographic sense we share it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds: it may extend back as far as the reptiles.there is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep. in dream sleep, the animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external stimuli. dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep. the fact that deep dream sleep is rare among pray today seems clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones. but why should they sleep deeply at all? why should a state of such deep immobilization ever have evolved?perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in genera seem to sleep very little. there is, by and large, no place to hide in the ocean. could it be that, rather than increasing an animal’s vulnerability, the university of florida and ray middies of london university have suggested this to be the case. it is conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own initiative are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep. the point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals. this is an interesting notion and probably at least partly true.

　　18 modern american universitiesbefore the 1850’s, the united states had a number of small colleges, most of them dating from colonial days. they were small, church connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral character of their students.throughout europe, institutions of higher learning had developed, bearing the ancient name of university. in german university was concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals. between mid-century and the end of the 1800’s, more than nine thousand young americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to germany for advanced study. some of them return to become presidents of venerable colleges-----harvard, yale, columbia---and transform them into modern universities. the new presidents broke all ties with the churches and brought in a new kind of faculty. professors were hired for their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and had a strong arm for disciplining students. the new principle was that a university was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this called for a faculty composed of teacher-scholars. drilling and learning by rote were replaced by the german method of lecturing, in which the professor’s own research was presented in class. graduate training leading to the ph.d., an ancient german degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly attainment, was introduced. with the establishment of the seminar system, graduate student learned to question, analyze, and conduct their own research.at the same time, the new university greatly expanded in size and course offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted curriculum of mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music. the president of harvard pioneered the elective system, by which students were able to choose their own course of study. the notion of major fields of study emerged. the new goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the world. paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new universities trained men and women to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the most characteristic of the new regime. students were also trained as economists, architects, agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and teachers.

　　19 children’s numerical skillspeople appear to born to compute. the numerical skills of children develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth. not long after learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impress accuracy---one knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs. soon they are capable of nothing that they have placed five knives, spoons and forks on the table and, a bit later, that this amounts to fifteen pieces of silverware. having thus mastered addition, they move on to subtraction. it seems almost reasonable to expect that if a child were secluded on a desert island at birth and retrieved seven years later, he or she could enter a second enter a second-grade mathematics class without any serious problems of intellectual adjustment.of course, the truth is not so simple. this century, the work of cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily learning on which intellectual progress depends. children were observed as they slowly grasped-----or, as the case might be, bumped into----- concepts that adults take for quantity is unchanged as water pours from a short glass into a tall thin one. psychologists have since demonstrated that young children, asked to count the pencils in a pile, readily report the number of blue or red pencils, but must be coaxed into finding the total. such studies have suggested that the rudiments of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort. they have also suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers------the idea of a oneness, a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than setting a table-----is itself far from innate

　　20 the historical significance of american revolutionthe ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of human actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and distant localities as the expression of one intellectual or social movement; yet the historical process which culminated in the ascent of thomas jefferson to the presidency can be regarded as the outstanding example not only of the birth of a new way of life but of nationalism as a new way of life. the american revolutionrepresents the link between the seventeenth century, in which modern england became conscious of itself, and the awakening of modern europe at the end ofthe eighteenth century. it may seem strange that the march of history should have had to cross the atlantic ocean, but only in the north american colonies could a struggle for civic liberty lead also to the foundation of a new nation. here, in the popular rising against a “tyrannical” government, the fruits were more than the securing of a freer constitution. they included the growth of a nation born in liberty by the will of the people, not from the roots of common descent, a geographic entity, or the ambitions of king or dynasty. with the american nation, for the first time, a nation was born, not in the dim past of history but before the eyes of the whole world.

　　21 the origin of sportswhen did sport begin? if sport is, in essence, play, the claim might be made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have observed, the beasts play. dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games. fishes and birds dance. the apes have simple, pleasurable games. frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with the universe of animals - past, present, and future. young animals, particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh (or so it seems) to the point of delighted exhaustion. their play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to give pleasure to the players, and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the anguish of life in earnest.     some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble part of our basic nature. in their generous conceptions, play harmlessly and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy, and imagination into action. play is release from the tedious battles against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable, tragedies of life. this is a grand conception that excites and provokes. the holders of this view claim that the origins of our highest accomplishments ---- liturgy, literature, and law ---- can be traced to a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely enjoyed by young beasts and children. our sports, in this rather happy, nonfatalistic view of human nature, are moresplendid creations of the nondatable, transspecies play impulse.

　　22. collectiblescollectibles have been a part of almost every culture since ancient times. whereas some objects have been collected for their usefulness, others have been selected for their aesthetic beauty alone. in the united states, the kinds of collectibles currently popular range from traditional objects such as stamps, coins, rare books, and art to more recent items of interest like dolls, bottles, baseball cards, and comic books.     interest in collectibles has increased enormously during the past decade, in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their value as investments. especially during cycles of high inflation, investors try to purchase tangibles that will at least retain their current market values. in general, the most traditional collectibles will be sought because they have preserved their value over the years, there is an organized auction market for them, and they are most easily sold in the event that cash is needed. some examples of the most stable collectibles are old masters, chinese ceramics, stamps, coins, rare books, antique jewelry, silver, porcelain, art by well-known artists, autographs, and period furniture. other items of more recent interest include old photograph records, old magazines, post cards, baseball cards, art glass, dolls, classic cars, old bottles, and comic books. these relatively new kinds of collectibles may actually appreciate faster as short-term investments, but may not hold their value as long-term investments. once a collectible has had its initial play, it appreciates at a fairly steady rate, supported by an increasing number of enthusiastic collectors competing for the limited supply of collectibles that become increasingly more difficult to locate.

　　23 fordalthough henry ford’s name is closely associated with the concept of mass production, he should receive equal credit for introducing labor practices as early as 1913 that would be considered advanced even by today’s standards. safety measures were improved, and the work day was reduced to eight hours, compared with the ten-or twelve-hour day common at the time. in order to accommodate the shorter work day, the entire factory was converted from two to three shifts.     in addition, sick leaves as well as improved medical care for those injured on the job were instituted. the ford motor company was one of the first factories to develop a technical school to train specialized skilled laborers and an english language school for immigrants. some efforts were even made to hire the handicapped and provide jobs for former convicts.the most widely acclaimed innovation was the five-dollar-a-day minimum wage that was offered in order to recruit and retain the best mechanics and to discourage the growth of labor unions. ford explained the new wage policy in terms of efficiency and profit sharing. he also mentioned the fact that his employees would be able to purchase the automobiles that they produced – in effect creating a market for the product. in order to qualify for the minimum wage, an employee had to establish a decent home and demonstrate good personal habits, including sobriety, thriftiness, industriousness, and dependability. although some criticism was directed at ford for involving himself too much in the personal lives of his employees, there can be no doubt that, at a time when immigrants were being taken advantage of in frightful ways, henry ford was helping many people to establish themselves in america.

　　24 pianothe ancestry of the piano can be traced to the early keyboard instruments of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries --- the spinet, the dulcimer, and the virginal. in the seventeenth century the organ, the clavichord, and the harpsichord became the chief instruments of the keyboard group, a supremacy they maintained until the piano supplanted them at the end of the eighteenth century. the clavichord’s tone was metallic and never powerful; nevertheless, because of the variety of tone possible to it, many composers found the clavichord a sympathetic instrument for intimate chamber music. the harpsichord with its bright, vigorous tone was the favorite instrument for supporting the bass of the small orchestra of the period and for concert use, but the character of the tone could not be varied save by mechanical or structural devices. the piano was perfected in the early eighteenth century by a harpsichord maker in italy (though musicologists point out several previous instances of the instrument). this instrument was called a piano e forte (sort and loud), to indicate its dynamic versatility; its strings were struck by a recoiling hammer with a felt-padded head. the wires were much heavier in the earlier instruments. a series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance.

　　25. movie musicaccustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. from the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensableaccompaniment; when the lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the united states in february 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. at first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient. within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film.as movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and perhaps a cellist, would be added to the pianist in certain cases, and in the larger movie theaters small orchestras were formed. for a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualification for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces. since the conductor seldom saw the films until the night before they were to be shown (if indeed, the conductor was lucky enough to see them then), the musical arrangement was normally improvised in the greatest hurry.to help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments. in 1909, for example, the edison company began issuing with their films such indications of mood as “pleasant”, “sad”, “lively”. the suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of music, and precise directions to show where one piece led into the next.certain films had music especially composed for them. the most famous of these early special scores was that composed and arranged for d.w griffith’s film birth of a nation, which was released in 1915.

　　26. international business and cross-cultural communicationthe increase in international business and in foreign investment has created a need for executives with knowledge of foreign languages and skills in cross-cultural communication. americans, however, have not been well trained in either area and, consequently, have not enjoyed the same level of success in negotiation in an international arena as have their foreign counterparts.negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth for the purpose of reaching an agreement. it involves persuasion and compromise, but in order to participate in either one, the negotiators must understand the ways in which people are persuaded and how compromise is reached within the culture of the negotiation.in many international business negotiations abroad, americans are perceived as wealthy and impersonal. it often appears to the foreign negotiator that the american represents a large multi-million-dollar corporation that can afford to pay the price without bargaining further. the american negotiator’s role becomes that of an impersonal purveyor of information and cash.in studies of american negotiators abroad, several traits have been identified that may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception, while undermining the negotiator’s position. two traits in particular that cause cross-cultural misunderstanding are directness and impatience on the part of the american negotiator. furthermore, american negotiators often insist on realizing short-term goals. foreign negotiators, on the other hand, may value the relationship established between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in it for long- term benefits. in order to solidify the relationship, they may opt for indirect interactions without regard for the time involved in getting to know the other negotiator.

　　27. scientific theoriesin science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related. a theory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced. a good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion.a useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to redict events that have not as yet been observed. after a theory has been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory. if observations confirm the scientist’s predictions, the theory is supported. if observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must search further. there may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performing experiments. facts by themselves are not science. as the mathematician jules henri poincare said, “science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house.”most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about a particular problem. after known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination. possible solutions to the problem are formulated. these possible solutions are called hypotheses.in a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. it extends the scientist’s thinking beyond the known facts. the scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test hypotheses. without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose and direction. when hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories.

　　28 changing roles of public educationone of the most important social developments that helped to make possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was the effect of the baby boom of the 1950’s and 1960’s on the schools. in the 1920’s, but especially in the depression conditions of the 1930’s, the united states experienced a declining birth rate --- every thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940. with the growing prosperity brought on by the second world war and the economic boom that followed it young people married and established households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the depression. birth rates rose to 102 per12

本文来源：http://www.qingyiyi.cn/article/sCIO.html